How Do Archaeologists Count Backward Using BP

The initials BP (or bp and rarely B.P.),  when placed after a number (as in 2500 BP), means years Before the Present. Archaeologists and geologists generally use this abbreviation to refer to dates that were obtained through the radiocarbon dating technology. While BP is also used generally as an imprecise estimate of an age of an object or event, the use of it in science was made necessary by the quirks of the radiocarbon methodology. Radiocarbons Effects Radiocarbon dating was invented in the late 1940s, and within a few decades, it was discovered that while the dates retrieved from the method have a sound, repeatable progression, they are not a one-to-one match with calendar years. Most importantly, researchers discovered that radiocarbon dates are affected by the amount of carbon in the atmosphere, which has fluctuated greatly in the past for both natural and human-caused reasons (such as the invention of iron smelting, the Industrial Revolution, and the invention of the combustion engine). Tree rings, which keep a record of the amount of carbon in the atmosphere when they are created, are used to calibrate or fine-tune radiocarbon dates to their calendar dates. Scholars use the science of dendrochronology, which matches those annular rings to known carbon fluctuations. That methodology has been refined and improved several times over the last few years. BP was first established as a way to clarify the relationship between calendar years and radiocarbon dates. Advantages and Disadvantages One advantage to using BP is it avoids the occasionally irate philosophical debate about whether, in this multicultural world of ours, it is more appropriate to use AD  and BC, with their explicit references to Christianity, or to use the same calendar but without the explicit references: CE (Common Era) and BCE (Before the Common Era). The problem is, of course, that CE and BCE still use the estimated date of the birth of Christ as the reference points for its numbering system: the two years 1 BCE and 1 CE are numerically equivalent to 1 BC and 1 AD. However, a major disadvantage of using BP is that the present year, of course, changes every twelve months. If it was a simple matter of counting backward, what was accurately measured and published as 500 BP today in fifty years would be 550 BP. We need a fixed point in time as a starting point so that all the BP dates are equivalent no matter when they are published. Since the BP designation was originally associated with radiocarbon dating, archaeologists chose the year 1950 as a reference point for the present. That date was chosen because radiocarbon dating was invented in the late 1940s. At the same time, atmospheric nuclear testing, which throws huge amounts of carbon into our atmosphere, was begun in the 1940s. Radiocarbon dates after 1950 are virtually useless  unless and until we can figure out a way to calibrate for the excessive amount of carbon still being deposited in our atmosphere. Nonetheless, 1950 is a long time ago now—should we adjust the starting point to 2000? No, the same problem would have to be addressed again in the coming years. Scholars now typically cite both raw, uncalibrated radiocarbon dates as years RCYBP (radiocarbon years before the present as 1950), alongside calibrated versions of those dates as cal BP, cal AD and cal BC (calibrated or calendar years BP, AD, and BC). That probably seems excessive, but it will always be useful to have a stable starting point in the past to hook our dates on, despite the outmoded religious underpinnings of our modern, multiculturally-shared calendar. So, when you see 2000 cal BP, think 2000 years before the calendar year 1950 or what calculates to the calendar year 50 BCE. No matter when that date is published, it will always mean that.   Thermoluminescence Dating Thermolumiscence dating, on the other hand, has a unique situation. Unlike radiocarbon dates, TL dates are calculated in straight calendar years—and the dates measured range from a few years to hundreds of thousands of years. It might not matter if a 100,000-year-old luminescence date was measured in 1990 or 2010. But scholars still need a starting point, because, for a TL date of 500 years ago, even 50 years difference would be an important distinction. So, how do you record that? Current practice is to quote the age along with the date it was measured, but other options are being considered. Among those are using 1950 as a reference point; or better still, use 2000, cited in the literature as b2k, to segregate it out from radiocarbon dating. A TL date of 2500 b2k would be 2,500 years before 2000, or 500 BCE.   Long after the Gregorian calendar was established throughout most of the world, atomic clocks have allowed us to adjust our modern calendars with leap seconds to correct for the slowing spin of our planet and other corrections. But, perhaps the most interesting outcome of all this investigation is the wide variety of modern mathematicians and programmers who have taken a crack at perfecting the matches between ancient calendars using modern technology. Other Common Calendar Designations A.D. (Anno Domini, Year of Our Lord, dating from the birth of Jesus Christ, Christian calendar)A.H. (Anno Hegira, Year of the Journey in Latin, dating from Mohammads journey to Mecca, Islamic calendar)A.M. (rarely used, but meaning Anno Mundi, Year of the World, dating from the calculated date of the worlds creation, Hebrew calendar)B.C. Before Christ, (before his birth, Christian calendar)B.C.E. (Before the Common Era, Western revised Christian calendar)C.E. (Common Era, Western revised Christian calendar)RCYBP (RadioCarbon Years Before the Present, scientific nomenclature)cal BP (Calibrated or Calendar years Before the Present, scientific nomenclature) Sources: Duller GAT. 2011. What date is it? Should there be an agreed datum for luminescence ages? Ancient TL 29(1).Peters JD. 2009. Calendar, clock, tower. MIT6 Stone and Papyrus: Storage and Transmission . Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Reimer PJ, Bard E, Bayliss A, Beck JW, Blackwell PG, Bronk Ramsey C, Buck CE, Cheng H, Edwards RL, Friedrich M et al. 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0–50,000 Years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55(4):1869–1887.Taylor T. 2008. Prehistory vs. Archaeology: Terms of Engagement. Journal of World Prehistory 21:1–18.

The Protection and Welfare of Children - 1271 Words

Preface One of the greatest responsibilities of society in general and government officials particularly is the protection of children. All too often, various factors in families create a lack of safety and well-being for children. For this reason, entities such as the Mission of the Massachusetts Department of Children and Families exist to create safety, permanency, and well being for children, especially after they have suffered from trauma incidents within the family. New child welfare practices included in the Department are child-driven, family centered, community focused, strengths-based, committed to diversity and committed to continuous learning and innovation. By focusing on these ideals, each individual within the Department is focused on creating the best possible for all children making use of its services. Hence, the Department works to promote its vision, which is the safety of children in a way that can provide the best possible hope of creating a sustained and resilient network of relationships, which would support growth and development for the child and create a good platform for an effective adulthood. Specific services include foster care, residential placement, child care services, adoption services, and services focusing on help for households where domestic violence, abuse or neglect are present. Adolescent services and home based services for the education and support of families are also present. My role within the Department is asShow MoreRelatedAn Analytical Comparison Between England And Florida s Child Protection1619 Words   |  7 Pagespart of the world. This assignment will begin by defining child protection. This will lead to an analytical comparison between England and Florida’s child protection approaches, structure of the system and possible practice issues. This will include will include relevant legislation and policies. Following this suggestions on the improvement of provisions and services will be made in accordance to the above findings. Child protection has been chosen for the focus of this assignment as this is a serviceRead MoreRole of Government in Social Welfare1477 Words   |  6 PagesROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN SOCIAL WELFARE A Government consists of group of people who govern a state. The proper governing of state plays a very important role in the development of a country. The government should take all necessary steps for the betterment of the country and its people. A democratic country is for the people, by the people and to the people. Therefore government of any country should act wisely for the development of the community. Social welfare is a policy in which the well beingRead MoreCyp Core 3.3 –1.1 Outline Current Legislation, Guidelines, Policies and Procedures Within Own Uk Home Nation Affecting the Safeguarding of Children and Young People.883 Words   |  4 PagesHome Nation affecting the safeguarding of children and young people. Child Act 1989 - There has been certain legislation in the United Kingdom along with home policies and procedures that affect the safeguarding of children and young people. Policies and procedures for safeguarding and child protection in England and Wales are the result of the Children Act 1989 and the Children Act 2004 carried more changes that affected the way the child protection system is structured and organized worksRead MoreChild Welfare Policy: Past, Present, and Future Essays1028 Words   |  5 Pagestime, women and children were seen as unimportant under the law, whereas a father was given almost total control over all matters regarding his wife and children. If a father was violent or neglectful, society simply turned their shoulder to it. In the latter half of the nineteenth century, laws pertaining to the family system began to change. A new law recognized the equal rights of fathers and mothers with the mother’s rights reigning over the fathers in regards to the children. Also, the legalRead MoreOutline Of Historical Views On Child Welfare Workforce And Nasw Standards994 Words   |  4 PagesWeek 1 - Child Welfare Workforce an d NASW Standards Provide an overview of historical views on children and identify how this will impact your role in empowering families, protecting children from maltreatment, and engaging in ethical decision making as a child welfare worker. Historically, children were viewed very differently than they are today. Adults thought of children as being seen and not heard. Children were expected to work in textile factories or as chimney sweeps in order to provideRead MoreThe Mission Of The Child Protection Services Agency1612 Words   |  7 Pagesthe National Association of Public Child Welfare Administrators, the mission of the child protection services agency is to assess the safety of children, intervene to protect children from harm, strengthen the ability of families to protect their children, and to provide a reunification or an alternative safe family for child (Home - Child Welfare Information Gateway, n.d.). The purpose of a case plan is an arrangement or ground plan that a child protection services professionals’ uses with a familyRead MoreDescribe Why Schools Have Policies and Procedures and Identify the Policies and Procedures Schools May Have Relating to Staff Pupil Welfare and Teaching and Learning1248 Words   |  5 PagesUnit 2.5 5.1 5.2 Describe why schools have policies and procedures and Identify the policies and procedures schools may have relating to: a) staff b) pupil welfare c) teaching and learning All schools have policies and procedures in place to support staff in their management of situations these may involve violence, threatening behaviour or abuse amongst other policies which are all legal requirements within the setting of a school, you must adhere to these policies and familiariseRead MoreSafeguarding the Welfare of Children and Young People1406 Words   |  6 PagesSafeguarding the welfare of children and young people 1. Using the headings provided, briefly describe the key points of each of the following guidelines and legislation. (1.1) and analyse how these guidelines affect the day to day work with young children (1.3) The Children act 1989 The aim of this act is to simplify the laws that are already in place, which protect children and young people in the UK. It was seen as a â€Å"serious shake up† of children’s rights and protection, and also made itRead MoreOutline Current Legislation, Guidelines, Policies and Procedure Within Own Uk Home Nation Affecting the Safeguarding of Children and Young People766 Words   |  4 Pagessafeguarding of children and young people. Any individual who comes into contact with children in their daily line of work â€Å"has a duty to safeguard and promote the welfare of children†. Safeguarding means protecting and promoting the child’s welfare and putting measure in place to prevent abuse. Child protection is protecting a child where there is reason to believe that the child has suffered or are likely to suffer as a result of abuse. There are many laws that protect the welfare and safeguardingRead MoreOutline the Current Legislation Covering Home Based Childcare and the Role of Regulatory Bodies.882 Words   |  4 Pagesthe name of the green paper produced in response to the Laming inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbià © in 2000. It went on to form the basis of the 2004 Children’s Act. The paper lists five outcomes which were identified in consultation with children and young people: Being healthy: enjoying good physical and mental health and living a healthy lifestyle Staying safe: being protected from harm and neglect Enjoying and achieving: getting the most out of life and developing the skills

A Day of Many Events Free Essays

The day I was born, April 28, 1982 was a day of love, business and learning. While the (insert surname) family is happily waiting for the love child of (name of your parents), series of events was also happening. It was a day filled with many activities and a day of expectations. We will write a custom essay sample on A Day of Many Events or any similar topic only for you Order Now In Federal Agencies, reports were made from the Education Week about the public hearings on bilingual education. This happened on the day I was born, April 28, 1982, from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., in the El Fauno Room of the Condado Beach Hotel, San Juan, Puerto Rico (Education Week). Meanwhile, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration released reports involving the astronauts Robert L. Gibson and Rhea Seddon about the good news of expecting the birth of their first child. It was indeed a much anticipated moment for the couple to have a baby of their own (Lawrence). World Bank History also made one historical event on the day I was born. The IFC (International Finance Corp.) and IDA (International Development Association) Articles of Agreement were signed by Saint Lucia, a Caribbean island nation. The small country became IFC’s 122nd member and IDA’s 130th member. It was a huge leap towards developing funds for the world (World Bank). Clearly, on the day when my mother gave birth to me, there were many events that occurred in history. It was a day of hope for the education system when public hearings were conducted for the proposed Bilingual Education System. It was also a day of happiness and expectation for an astronaut couple. It was also an important day in the history of World Bank, when Saint Lucia joined IFC and IDA. Meanwhile, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, my parents were happily expecting a special gift—they were excited to see one bouncing baby who will add happiness to our family. Indeed, April 28, 1982 was a day of hope, excitement, and fulfillment for my family and for the world. Works Cited Name of your mother, Personal Interview. 2 April 2008. â€Å"This Week in World Bank History: April 28 – May 4† 2008.† The World Bank Archives. Worldbank. April 2008   http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/EXTARCHIVES/ 0,,contentMDK:21672251~pagePK:36726~piPK:437378~theSitePK:29506,00.html â€Å"In Federal Agencies.† Education Week. Edweek. 28 April 1982. 5 April 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/1982/04/28/02230095.h01.html Lawrence, John. â€Å"Expectant Astronauts.† 1981-1983 NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) News. NASA. 28 April 1982. 5 April 2008   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/83134main_1982.pdf How to cite A Day of Many Events, Essay examples

Wedding Custom free essay sample

Chinese wedding customs Traditional Chinese marriage is a ceremonial ritual within Chinese societies that involve a marriage established by  pre-arrangement between families. A band of musicians with gongs and flute-like instruments accompanies the bride parade to grooms home. Similar music is also played at the wedding banquet. Depending on the region that the bride hails from, Chinese weddings will have different traditions such as  Tea Ceremony  or the use of a wedding emcee. In most southern Chinese wedding, the bride price is based on the grooms economic status.The idea of selling the daughter or bride isnt a phrase that is used often therefore the price of the bride isnt too demanding. Most of the time the bride price is in the form of gold jewellery, fine fabric, or money, even a roast pig which symbolizes the bride to be a virgin. Wedding presents are given by the elderly couples or couples that are older than the newlyweds and tea is served by the younger family members. We will write a custom essay sample on Wedding Custom or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Malay wedding customs A  Malay  wedding ceremony spreads over two days, beginning with the  akad nikah  ceremony on the first day.The groom signs the marriage contract and agrees to provide the bride with a  mas kahwin  (dowry). After that, their hands are dyed with henna during the berinai besar ceremony. The brides hair is also trimmed or her eyebrows shaped by a beautician known as the  mak andam. On the second day, the bride is with her family and friends with musicians and bunga manggar or palm blossom carriers at the brides house. At the house they are greeted with sprinkling of yellow rice and scented water.

Exploring Family Life Education Social Work Essays

Exploring Family Life Education Social Work Essays Exploring Family Life Education Social Work Essay Exploring Family Life Education Social Work Essay We live in a civilization where households are challenged with jobs all the clip. Regardless of what the jobs may be, households need assist developing accomplishments to pass on efficaciously and beef up their relationships. While most single can acknowledge that their households need aid, they often are non adequately prepared to assist their households make needed alterations. Obtaining a Masters of Humanistic disciplines in Family and Consumers Science- Family Studies Concentration will assist me to assist others fix for alteration and finally accomplish both my short-run and long-run ends. In the short term, I hope to work my manner up to go the Lead Housing Resource Specialist at Community Rebuilders. Currently, I m a Housing Resource Specialist. This experience has created a passion in me to work in the household surveies field and larn more about it. A cardinal constituent that I have found common among all of my clients is that they all wish they could hold been prepared for their jobs. That tells me that if my clients had bar methods in topographic point, their jobs may non hold been a major job to get down with. Family Life Education works from the bar theoretical account because it teaches persons and households how to better household life and to forestall jobs before they occur. Family jobs, when they can be addressed through bar, are less detrimental for people and less expensive for society. My long term end is to assist educate households as an Executive Director of a non-profit bureau. While analyzing for the Masters plan, I hope to develop the instruction and skill-set in order to make my ends. I want to go an effectual and advanced professional who can supply effectual instruction and bar services for households through services my bureau can supply. I want to go an person of high moral and ethical criterions whose bureau can work as a alteration agent in my community. Analyzing for the Masters of Humanistic disciplines in Family and Consumer Science- Family Life Education is a fantastic chance because I will be able to larn the different parts of the household and learn to see how they function as a whole. The Fundamentalss classs should give me the model, while the advanced classs will supply a more specific preparation. During survey, I will besides look to take an internship and/or auxiliary categories to assist foster my experience. It is the ability to understand the many different facets of the household that will fix me to carry through my long-run end of going an Executive Director. Equally of import, I hope to larn from my fellow pupils and portion with them some of the lessons I have gained from my experience. The best lesson I have learned while working at Community Rebuilders is to step out of the box and think of new solutions to old jobs. These originative minutes are what will travel a household frontward during difficult times. I e xpect that alumnus work at Western Michigan University will be demanding, disputing, and exciting, and I look frontward to go toing. During my clip in graduate school, I expect to have the chance to larn, turn, and evolve as a individual and a household life pedagogue. I am prepared and look frontward to puting myself, my clip, and my energy toward gaining that grade. I hope I will be allowed to make so at WMU. TOMARA L. MITCHELL ____________________________________________________________________________________ 3841 Yorkland Drive NW Apt. No. 9 Comstock Park, MI 49321 ( 616 ) 337-1852 TomaraMitchell @ gmail.com Profile Seeking a place which will enable me to use interpersonal and leading accomplishments to positively impact societal issues impacting households. Interact efficaciously with people of changing civilizations, backgrounds and professional degrees. Committed to set uping connexion and edifice strong relationships with all people. Skilled at placing strengths and failings in schemes and in making compassionate and non-judgmental solutions to jobs. Prove to be extremely motivated and difficult working. Possess first-class clip direction accomplishments. Education Bachelor s Degree in Sociology/General University Studies- April 2009 Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI Minor: Social Work Related Coursework: Crisiss and Resilience in Families Social Work Services and Professional Roles Social Welfare as a Social Institution Intro to Culture, Ethnicity, and Institutionalized Inequality in Social Work Practice Social Work Research Methods Human Behavior and the Social Environment Group Community and Organizational Behavior Child Psychology Global Ecology of the Family Employment Experience Community Rebuilders, Grand Rapids, MI February 2010 -Present Housing Resource Specialist Operate assigned rapid re-housing and bar plans Assist participants in placement and procuring lodging of their pick Assist participants in development of strength-based end and action programs that promotes lasting lodging Provide guidance and protagonism to participants Facilitate and organize supportive service activities for participants Serve as an ongoing affair between belongings directors and participants Hope Network, Grand Rapids, MI October 2009 March 2010 Community Living Support Provided direct supervising to persons in residential plans. Displayed appropriate behaviour and Teachs life accomplishments to occupants. Provided rating and direction in countries of day-to-day populating accomplishments or independent life accomplishments to heighten the occupants ability to make his/her highest degree of independency. Muskegon Heights Public Schools, Muskegon Heights, MI, September 2009 February 2010 On-Call Substitute Teacher Followed lesson programs, left by the lasting instructor. Created and maintained a clime of regard and equity for all pupils. Used schoolroom instructional clip suitably and sagely Tax Connection Worldwide, Muskegon, MI, January 2009 March 2009 Seasonal Tax Preparer Prepared clients federal and province returns Provided client service by rapidly and efficaciously treating minutess to guarantee return concern and client satisfaction Answered multi-line phones, greeted clients and performed light clerical work MOKA Inc. , Grand Haven, MI, July 2006 January 2008 Resident Support Staff Supporting little groups of developmentally handicapped and/or mentally sick persons in residential scene Teaching accomplishments with the end of independent life. Heritage Community, Kalamazoo, MI, September 2005 December 2005 Personal Care Assistant Provided comprehensive, quality patient attention in the country s top retirement community Used acquired formal cognition and accomplishments Represent the concerns of the occupant and their household Collaborate with squad members towards the development and accomplishment of optimum resident ends. Family and Children Services, Kalamazoo, MI, February 2005 July 2005 Respite Care Worker Managed little group home-like scene for kids 4 17 with terrible emotional and/or developmental disablements Served as function theoretical account, encouraged and supported personal behavioural growing and helped develop professional and life accomplishments Maintained healthy environment, inventoried and ordered supplies, and complied with local and province ordinances Lowe s Home Improvement, Portage, MI, July 2003 December 2004 Customer Service Representative Provided client service by rapidly and efficaciously treating minutess to guarantee return concern and client satisfaction Informed clients of new points and publicities that were available to better the client shopping experience Completed paperwork, handled hard currency, answered phones, and transferred calls when needed. Muskegon Heights Public, Muskegon Hts. , MI, September 2001 July 2002 Office Assistant/ Summer Program Coach Answered multi-line phones, greeted clients and performed light clerical work Acquired high degree of communicating accomplishments and learned to rapidly measure and hasten client demands. Ran tutoring Sessionss on day-to-day footing for simple elderly childs during summer school plan Graded work hebdomadally and tracked single advancement

George A. Custer - American Indian Wars

George A. Custer - American Indian Wars George Custer - Early Life: The son of Emanuel Henry Custer and Marie Ward Kirkpatrick, George Armstrong Custer was born at New Rumley, OH on December 5, 1839. A large family, the Custers had five children of their own as well as several from Maries earlier marriage. At a young age, George was sent to live with his half-sister and brother-in-law in Monroe, MI. While living there, he attended McNeely Normal School and did menial jobs around the campus to help pay for his room and board. After graduating in 1856, he returned to Ohio and taught school. George Custer - West Point: Deciding that teaching did not suit him, Custer enrolled at the US Military Academy. A weak student, his time at West Point was plagued by near expulsion each term for excessive demerits. These were usually earned through his penchant for pulling pranks on fellow cadets. Graduating in June 1861, Custer finished last in his class. While such a performance normally would have landed him an obscure posting and a short career, Custer benefited from the outbreak of the Civil War and the US Armys desperate need for trained officers. Commissioned a second lieutenant, Custer was assigned to the 2nd US Cavalry. George Custer - Civil War: Reporting for duty, he saw service at the First Battle of Bull Run (July 21, 1861) where he acted as a runner between General Winfield Scott and Major General Irvin McDowell. After the battle, Custer was reassigned to the 5th Cavalry and was sent south to participate in Major General George McClellans Peninsula Campaign. On May 24, 1862, Custer convinced a colonel to allow him to attack a Confederate position across the Chickahominy River with four companies of Michigan infantry. The attack was a success and 50 Confederates were captured. Impressed, McClellan took Custer onto his staff as an aide-de-camp. While serving on McClellans staff, Custer developed his love of publicity and began working to attract attention to himself. Following McClellans removal from command in the fall of 1862, Custer joined the staff Major General Alfred Pleasonton, who was then commanding a cavalry division. Quickly becoming his commanders protà ©gà ©, Custer became enamored with flashy uniforms and was schooled in military politics. In May 1863, Pleasonton was promoted to command the Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Though many of his men were alienated by Custers showy ways, they were impressed by his coolness under fire. After distinguishing himself as bold and aggressive commander at Brandy Station and Aldie, Pleasonton promoted him to brevet brigadier general despite his lack of command experience. With this promotion, Custer was assigned to lead a brigade of Michigan cavalry in the division of Brigadier General Judson Kilpatrick. After fighting the Confederate cavalry at Hanover and Hunterstown, Custer and his brigade, which he nicknamed the Wolverines, played a key role in the cavalry battle east of Gettysburg on July 3. As Union troops south of the town were repulsing Longstreets Assault (Picketts Charge), Custer was fighting with Brigadier General David Greggs division against Major General J.E.B. Stuarts Confederate cavalry. Personally leading his regiments into the fray on several occasions, Custer had two horses shot out from under him. The climax of the fight came when Custer led a mounted charge of the 1st Michigan which stopped the Confederate attack. His triumph as Gettysburg marked the high point of his career. The following winter, Custer married Elizabeth Clift Bacon on February 9, 1864. In the spring, Custer retained his command after the Cavalry Corps was reorganized by its new commander Major General Philip Sheridan. Participating in Lt. General Ulysses S. Grants Overland Campaign, Custer saw action at the Wilderness, Yellow Tavern, and Trevilian Station. In August, he traveled west with Sheridan as part of the forces sent to deal with Lt. General Jubal Early in the Shenandoah Valley. After pursuing Earlys forces after the victory at Opequon, he was promoted to divisional command. In this role he aided in destroying Earlys army at Cedar Creek that October. Returning to Petersburg after the campaign in the Valley, Custers division saw action at Waynesboro, Dinwiddie Court House, and Five Forks. After this final battle, it pursued General Robert E. Lees retreating Army of Northern Virginia after Petersburg fell on April 2/3, 1865. Blocking Lees retreat from Appomattox, Custers men were the first to receive a flag of truce from the Confederates. Custer was present at Lees surrender on April 9, and was given the table on which it was signed in recognition of his gallantry. George Custer - Indian Wars: After the war, Custer reverted back to the rank of captain and briefly considered leaving the military. He was offered the position of adjutant general in the Mexican army of Benito Jurez, who was then battling Emperor Maximilian, but was blocked from accepting it by the State Department. An advocate of President Andrew Johnsons reconstruction policy, he was criticized by hardliners who believed he was attempting to curry favor with the goal of receiving a promotion. In 1866, he turned down the colonelcy of the all-black 10th Cavalry (Buffalo Soldiers) in favor of the lieutenant colonelcy of the 7th Cavalry. In addition, he was given the brevet rank of major general at the behest of Sheridan. After serving in Major General Winfield Scott Hancocks 1867 campaign against the Cheyenne, Custer was suspended for a year for leaving his post to see his wife. Returning to the regiment in 1868, Custer won the Battle of Washita River against Black Kettle and the Cheyenne that November. George Custer - Battle of the Little Bighorn: Six years later, in 1874, the Custer and the 7th Cavalry scouted the Black Hills of South Dakota and confirmed the discovery of gold at French Creek. This announcement touched off the Black Hills gold rush and further heightened tensions with the Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne. In an effort to secure the hills, Custer was dispatched as part of a larger force with orders to round up the remaining Indians in the area and relocate them to reservations. Departing Ft. Lincoln, ND with Brigadier General Alfred Terry and a large force of infantry, the column moved west with the goal of linking up with forces coming from the west and south under Colonel John Gibbon and Brigadier General George Crook. Encountering the Sioux and Cheyenne at the Battle of the Rosebud on June 17, 1876, Crooks column was delayed. Gibbon, Terry, and Custer met later that month and, based on a large Indian trail, decided to have Custer circle around the Indians while the other two approached with the main force. After refusing reinforcements, including Gatling guns, Custer and the approximately 650 men of the 7th Cavalry moved out. On June 25, Custers scouts reported sighting the large camp (900-1,800 warriors) of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse along the Little Bighorn River. Concerned that the Sioux and Cheyenne might escape, Custer recklessly decided to attack the camp with only the men on hand. Dividing his force, he ordered Major Marcus Reno to take one battalion and attack from the south, while he took another and circled around to the north end of the camp. Captain Frederick Benteen was sent southwest with a blocking force to prevent any escape. Charging up the valley, Renos attack was stopped and he was forced to retreat, with Benteens arrival saving his force. To the north, Custer too was stopped and superior numbers forced him to retreat. With his line broken, the retreat became disorganized and his entire 208-man force was killed while making their last stand. Selected Sources PBS: George A. CusterCuster in the Civil WarBattle of the Little Bighorn

Critically Evaluate the Evidence for the Mode of life, Behaviour and Essay

Critically Evaluate the Evidence for the Mode of life, Behaviour and Ancestry of the Pterosaurs (flying reptiles) - Essay Example Pterosaurs form the group of the first animals to fly. The winged lizards belonged to the order pterosauria. Their wings stretched from the ankle to a lengthened forth finger. Their bones were hollow, and air filled, like those for birds. They had a keeled breastbone that developed and got attached to flight muscles. Their brain was enlarged hence, showed specialized features associated with flight. Later developments of the species saw their shoulders fused into a structure known as notarium. Its purpose was to conceal the torso during flight and provide a stable support to the shoulder blade. Wilton (2013) research shows that pterosaurs remained conservative for 70 million years after which, they started practicing adaptation with all kinds of new modes of life. Such adaptation lifestyles included change of food and food sources. Pterosaurs are believed to be the ancestors of the modern day birds. However, this is not the truth. They resemble birds in many ways, but they are not cl ose to being birds. There were two major kinds of pterosaurs, the rhamphorhynchoid and pterodactyls. The first consisted of a smaller pterosaur, and the later comprised of large bodied and rare pterosaur (Bennet, 1989). Main features of pterosaurs They belonged to the category of weak flyers. Recent studies implicate that the wings of the pterosaurs were flappers, not gliders. An elongated digit on their claws was attached to them. The flight membrane and muscle attachments connected the digit to the arm, shoulders and chest to enable the creature gain stability during flight (Bennet, 1989). The wings extended up to 40 feet and attached to the hind limbs. The essence was to connect the hands and legs. The bones were hollow (i.e. honeycomb). This made them light for easy flight (Bennet, 1989). The membranes were very complex but very thin for flight purposes. The consistent of the membrane included blood vessels, fibrous tissues and small muscles. The membrane performed cooling funct ions preventing the body from too much heat (Bennet, 1989). Pterosaurs walked on four legs. This caused constraint to the animal since it could not walk fast with its limbs connected to the wings. These features lead to the conclusion that pterosaurs evolved from tree climbing reptiles. Their claws were curled like those of tree climbing reptiles (Frey et al. 2003). The claws of the hind limbs resembled those of the birds that walked on the ground (Prentice, Ruta & Benton, 2011). Those of the forelimbs resembled those of the perching birds. The adaptability mode for the limbs was to be able to walk on the ground and perch on trees (Bennet, 1989). Scientists critically examine the head of the animals and come up with many physiological and behavioral traits of the animals. The shape of the head acts as an adaptive feature for prey catching. Some pterosaurs had beaks long, to about two feet (Witton, &Naish, 2008). Those that had teeth were very sharp aligned on the side of both jaws. The ones that did not have teeth had very long, pointed and sharp edged bills (Kellner, 2003). The animal had a head that sloped downwards. The floccolus is a lobe in the brain that had connections to the eye and neck muscles (Padian, 1997). The functions of the connection were to stabilize and sharpen view of pray within the eyes. Some pterosaurs had head crests thought to have been used to attract mates or repel rivals and attackers (Prentice, Ruta& Benton, 2008). They